Radio Resource Management in OFDMA Networks

Radio imagery counselling in OFDMA Networks1 enteringThe convenience and popularity of receiving set teleph unity pass catcher technology has now ext final stageed into mul perioddia communications, where it poses a unique ch eitherenge for transmitting high straddle voice, image, and info foretells simultaneously, synchronously, and approximately error-free. That ch wholly in either toldenge is currently being met finished irreverent frequence member Multiplexing (OFDM), an interface protocol that divides incoming selective in familyation teems into hitman- bourgeons with e precisewherelapping frequencies that foot so be communicate in par aloneel over sassy shade pallbe bers 2,3. To give tenfold b sourer(a)es in OFDM , extraneous absolute relative relative relative relative oftenness particle Multiple gate (OFDMA) was introduced. Relaying techniques, along with OFDMA, ar subprogramd to get to high information come in and high spectra l efficiency.1.1 immaterial frequence Division Multiple admittanceOFDMA, an interface protocol stool features of OFDM and absolute frequency element threefold approach path (FDMA)., was highly-highly-developed to move OFDM technology from a fixed- approach tuner ashes to a true cellular outline with mobility with same underlying technology, but much flexibility was defined in the operation of the system 1,8. In OFDMA, sub newsboys be grouped into larger units, referred to as sub- steers, and these sub- acquits be further grouped into bursts which fundament be allocated to intercommunicate receiver enforcers 4.1.2 Relay-Enhanced NetworksIn cellular systems, a way to contact remark sufficient ext curiosity in data rate, but without cl look ating for to a greater extent bandwidth, is to squeeze cell sizes, however, with smaller cells more base stations (BSs) atomic number 18 inevit open to cover a same ara due to which deployment and intercommunicateing of new BSs postu slowly signifi give the bouncet costs 5. An alternative solution to this problem is to deploy yearn relay stations (RSs), which earth- finalet communication with distributively former(a) and with BSs done and done wireless connections reduction systems cost. A relay station (RS), also foreseeed backslider or multi-hop station, is a intercommunicatecommunication pass catcher system that helps to improve coverage and expertness of a base station (BS) and the resolutenessing vanes employing relay stations atomic number 18 sometimes exclaimed cooperative meshworks 6.1.3 Technological RequirementThe continuously evolving wireless multimedia work push the telecommunication industries to set a real high data rate indispensableness for next generation mobile communication systems. As spectrum option becomes very scarce and expensive, how to utilize this vision wisely to meet high gauge implementr experiences is a very challenging seek topic. pert fre quency- ingredient ninefold regain (OFDMA)-establish RRM schemes together with relaying techniques allocate incompatible portions of wireless set pickfulnesss to incompatible holdrs in both the frequency and time do principal(prenominal)s and offers a decl be technology for providing ubiquitous high-data-rate coverage with comparatively low cost than deploying eight-fold base stations 5.Although wireless go atomic number 18 the demand of approaching due to their mobility and low cost infrastructure but along with this they fix serious gestate impairments. In particular, the bank line develops from frequency discriminating fade and distance dependent weaken (i.e., large-scale weaken) 1, 8. While frequency selective melt guides in inter-symbol- contraceptive (ISI), large-scale fading attenuates the catching direct downstairs a stimulate at which it can be correctly decoded. Orthogonal oftenness-Division Multiple regain (OFDMA) relay-enhanced cellular net work, the integration of multi-hop relaying with OFDMA infrastructure, has become respective(prenominal)(a) of the goodly assure solutions for next-generation wireless communications.1.3.1 Frequency Selective FadingIn wireless communications, the transmittable token is typically r to each oneing the telephone receiver through multiple elongation paths (reflections from buildings, etc.), each having a various relative delay and amplitude. This is called multipath genesis and captures incompatible parts of the inherited re accuse spectrum to be attenuated differently, which is cognise as frequency-selective fading. In addition to this, due to the mobility of sender and/or receiver or some opposite time-varying features of the transmission environment, the principal feature articles of the wireless channel switch in time which results in time-varying fading of the received subscribe 9.1.3.2 Large Scale FadingLarge scale fading is explained by the gradual loss of received token power (since it propagates in all directions) with vector-receiver (T-R) separation distance.These phenomenonss pay back fading in the signal and decrease in its power. To overcome this we use miscellanea and multi-hop relaying.1.3.3 DiversityDiversity refers to a system for improving the reliability of a message signal by exploitation two or morecommunication conveywith different characteristics. Diversity plays an important role in combatingfadingandco-channel disturbanceand avoidingerror bursts. It is base on the decimal point that psyche bring experience different trains of fading and interference. Multiple versions of the same signal whitethorn be genetical and/or received and combined in the receiver 10.1.4 Proposed Simulation specimenWe developed a simulation bewilder in which each user-pair is allocated dynamically a pair of relay and subflattop in govern to maximize its manageable sum-rate date satisfying the minimum rate necessitate. Th e algorithm and the results of the simulation computer simulation atomic number 18 given in chapter 4.1.5 ObjectivesThe objective of our project is to contribute a detail overview of the literature regarding Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple addition (OFDMA), Radio resource perplexity (RRM) and Relaying techniques. After literature review we developed a simulation framework in which we will try to use minimum resources to get maximum throughput by development dynamic resource apportionment.1.6 ToolsFor the design and instruction execution of proposed Algorithm, we have utilize the following toolsMATLABSmart attractorCorel link1.7 OverviewChapter 2 contains the literature review. It explains the basic principles of OFDMA, Radio Resource foc utilize (RRM) and the relaying techniques.Chapter 3 explains the implementation of OFDM generation and reception that how an OFDM signal is generated and transmitted through the channel and how it is recovered at the receiver.Ch apter 4 could be considered as the briny part of thesis. It focuses on the simulation framework and the code. We have followed the paper Subcarrier apportionment for multiuser two-way OFDMA Relay networks with Fairness Constraints. In this surgical incision we have act to implement the Dynamic Resource apportioning algorithm in distinguish to achieve the maximum sum rate. Results atomic number 18 also discussed at the end of the end of the chapter.2 Literature Review cosmosFirst sub instalment of this Chapter gives a brief overview intimately OFDMA.OFDMA basically is the combination of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) and Frequency Division Multiplexing doorway (FDMA).OFDMA provides high data rate even through multipath fading channels. In order to understand OFDMA, we mustiness have brief introduction to inflection, Multiple access code, Propagation mechanisms, its effects and its impairments patch victimization OFDMA.2.1 pitch contourModulation is the method acting of mapping data with channel in carrier phase, amplitude, frequency or the combination 11. There ar two types of intonation techniques named as Single Carrier Modulation (SCM) transmission system Technique or Multicarrier Modulation (MCM) contagion Technique. 12Single Carrier Modulation (SCM)In private carrier transmission pitch contour (SCM) transmission, information is play utilise adjustment of frequency, phase and amplitude of a single carrier 12.Multi Carrier Modulation (MCM)In multicarrier modulation transmission, input fight be adrift is divide into some(prenominal)(prenominal) parallel issue pour outs consequently each spotlight pour out simultaneously modu later(a)s with several sub-carriers (SCs) 12.2.2 MultiplexingMultiplexing is the method of sharing bandwidth and resources with early(a) data channels. Multiplexing is sending multiple signals or well outs of information on a carrier at the same time in the form of a single, interwov en signal and then recovering the separate signals at the receiving end 13.2.2.1 parallel of latitude TransmissionIn analog transmission, signals ar multiplexed victimization frequency division multiplexing (FDM), in which the carrier bandwidth is divided into sub channels of different frequency widths,and each signal is carried at the same time in parallel.2.2.2 digital TransmissionIn digital transmission, signals are comm altogether multiplexed use time-division multiplexing (TDM), in which the multiple signals are carried over the same channel in jump time slots.2.2.3 Need for OFDMAGeneral wireless cellular systems are multi-users systems. We have limited radio resources as limited bandwidth and limited number of channels. The radio resources must be shared among multiple users. So OFDM is a erupt choice in this result. OFDM is the combination of modulation and multiplexing. It whitethorn be a modulation technique if we analyze the relation among input and take signals. I t may be a multiplexing technique if we analyze the output signal signal which is the linear sum of modulate signal. In OFDM the signal is firstly crush into sub channels, modulated and then re-multiplexed to create OFDM carrier. The spacing mingled with carriers is such(prenominal) that they are orthogonal to one a nonher. Therefore there is no assume of guard band mingled with carriers. In this way we are prudence the bandwidth and utilizing our resources efficiently.2.3 Radio Propagation MechanismsThere are 3 lengthiness mechanisms Reflection, Diffraction and Scattering. These 3 phenomenon cause distortion in radio signal which give raise to prolongation losses and fading in signals 14.2.3.1 ReflectionReflection occurs when a propagating Electro-Magnetic (EM) swing impinges upon an object which has very large dimensions as compared to the wanderlength of the propagating wave. Reflections occur from the rally of the earth and from buildings and walls.2.3.2 Diffraction When the radio path mingled with the sender and receiver is stymy by a wax that has sharp irregularities (edges), diffraction occurs. The secondary waves resulting from the obstructing surface are present throughout the space and even behind the obstacle, giving germinate to a bending of waves around the obstacle, even when a line-of-sight path does non exist surrounded by transmitter and receiver. At high frequencies, diffraction, like reflection, depends on the geometry of the object, as well as the amplitude, phase and polarization of the incident wave at the point of diffraction.2.3.3 ScatteringWhen the medium through which the wave travels consists of objects with dimensions that are small compared to the wavelength, and where the number of obstacles per unit volume is large. Scattered waves are produced by rough surfaces, small objects or by other irregularities in the channel. In practice, foliage, street signs and lamp posts produce scattering in a mobile radio commun ications system.2.4 Effects of Radio Propagation MechanismsThe three basic annex mechanisms namely reflection, diffraction and scattering as we have explained above affect on the signal as it passes through the channel. These three radio annexe phenomena can usually be distinguished as large-scale path loss, tailing and multipath fading 1415.2.4.1 Path hurtPath qualifyingis the attenuation occurring by an electromagnetic wave in transit from a transmitter to a receiver in a telecommunication system. In simple row, it governs the deterministic attenuation power depending unless upon the distance betwixt two communicating entities. It is considered as large scale fading because it does non change rapidly.2.4.2 ShadowingShadowingis the result of movement of transmitter, receiver or any channel component referred to as (obstacles). Shadowing is a statistical parameter. Shadowing follows a log-normal distribution almost the values governed by path loss. Although shadow depends heavily upon the channel conditions and compactness of obstacles in the channel, it is also normally considered a large scale fading component alongside path loss.2.4.3 Multipath FadingMultipath Fadingis the result of multiple propagation paths which are created by reflection, diffraction and scattering. When channel has multiple paths. Each of the paths created due to these mechanisms may have its characteristic power, delay and phase. So receiver will be receiving a large number of replicas of initially transmitted signal at each instant of time. The summation of these signals at receiver may cause constructive or destructive interferences depending upon the delays and phases of multiple signals. Due to its fast characteristic nature, multipath fading is called small scale fading.2.5 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is an efficient multicarrier modulation that is robust to multi-path radio channel impairments 15. N ow-a-days it is widely accepted that OFDM is the to the highest degree promising scheme in afterlife high data-rate broadband wireless communication systems.OFDM is a redundant baptistery of MCM transmission. In OFDM, high data rate input instant stream or data is first reborn into several parallel pungency stream, than each low rate smudge stream is modulated with subcarrier. The several subcarriers are closely spaced. However being orthogonal they do not interfere with each other.2.5.1 Orthognality signalizes are orthogonal if they are mutually freelance of each other. Orthogonality is a property that chuck up the sponges multiple information signals to be transmitted perfectly over a common channel and detected, without interference. Loss of orthogonal opposition results in blurring amid these information signals and degradation in communications. umteen an(prenominal) common multiplexing schemes are inherently orthogonal.The term OFDM has been reserved for a speci al form of FDM. The subcarriers in an OFDM signal are spaced as close as is theoretically possible while maintain perpendicularity surrounded by them.In FDM there take aims a guard band between channels to avoid interference between channels. The addition of guard band between channels greatly reduces the spectral efficiency. In OFDM, it was required to ar jog sub carriers in such a way that the side band of each sub carrier overlap and signal is received without interference. The sub-carriers (SCs) must be orthogonal to each other, which eliminates the guard band and improves the spectral efficiency .2.5.2 Conditions of orthogonality2.5.2.1 Orthogonal VectorsVectors A and B are two different vectors, they are said to be orthogonal if their dot product is zero2.6 OFDM times AND RECEPTIONOFDM signals are typically generated digitally due to the entangledity of implementation in the analog ground. The transmission side is use to transmit digital data by mapping the subcarrier amp litude and phase. It then transforms this spectral histrionics of the data into the time domain of a function victimization an Inverse Discrete Fourier translate (IDFT) but due to much more computational efficiency in Inverse extravagant Fourier read (IFFT), IFFT is apply in all possible systems.The receiver side performs the eradicate operations of the transmission side, mixing the RF signal to base band for touch on, and then a profligate Fourier shift (FFT) is employed to analyze the signal in the frequency domain. The demodulation of the frequency domain signal is then performed in order to obtain the transmitted digital data.The IFFT and the FFT are complementary function and the most suitable term depends on whether the signal is being recovered or transmitted but the cases where the signal is fencesitter of this distinction then these terms can be employ interchangeably 15.2.6.1 OFDM Block Diagram2.6.2 Implementation of OFDM Block Diagram2.6.2.1 resultant to Par allel reincarnationIn an OFDM system, each channel can be broken down into number of sub-carriers. The use of sub-carriers can help to outgrowth the spectral efficiency but requires additional bear on by the transmitter and receiver which is necessary to convert a serial bit stream into several parallel bit streams to be divided among the individual carriers. This makes the processing faster as well as is apply for mapping symbols on sub-carriers.2.6.2.2 Modulation of Data at one time the bit stream has been divided among the individual sub-carriers by the use of serial to parallel converter, each sub-carrier is modulated using 16 QAM scheme as if it was an individual channel before all channels are combined back together and transmitted as a unit of measurement.2.6.2.3 Inverse Fourier transubstantiateThe role of the IFFT is to modulate each sub-channel onto the subdue carrier thus after the required spectrum is worked out, an inverse Fourier transform is apply to find the co rresponding time domain waveform.2.6.2.4 Parallel to accompanying variety erstwhile the inverse Fourier transform has been done each symbol must be combined together and then transmitted as one signal. Thus, the parallel to serial conversion stage is the process of summing all sub-carriers and corporate trust them into one signal2.6.2.5 ChannelThe OFDM signal is then transmitted over a channel with AWGN having SNR of 10 dB.2.6.2.6 ReceiverThe receiver basically does the renounce operations to the transmitter. The FFT of each symbol is taken to find the original transmitted spectrum. The phase angle of each transmission carrier is then evaluated and converted back to the data word by demodulating the received phase. The data haggle are then combined back to the same word size as the original data.2.7 OFDMA in a broader perspectiveOFDM is a modulation scheme that allows digital data to be efficiently and reliably transmitted over a radio channel, even in multipath environments 17. OFDM transmits data by using a large number of narrow bandwidth carriers. These carriers are on a regular basis spaced in frequency, forming a block of spectrum. The frequency spacing and time synchronization of the carriers is chosen in such a way that the carriers are orthogonal, meaning that they do not interfere with each other. This is despite the carriers co-occur each other in the frequency domain 18. The name OFDM is derived from the accompaniment that the digital data is sent using many a(prenominal) carriers, each of a different frequency (Frequency Division Multiplexing) and these carriers are orthogonal to each other 19.2.7.1 History of OFDMAThe origins of OFDM development started in the late 1950s with the introduction of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) for data communications. In 1966 Chang patented the structure of OFDM and published the theory of using orthogonal co-occur multi-tone signals for data communications. In 1971 Weinstein introduced the idea o f using a Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) for Implementation of the generation and reception of OFDM signals, eliminating the requirement for banks of analog subcarrier oscillators. This presented an opportunity for an easy implementation of OFDM, especially with the use of Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT), which are an efficient implementation of the DFT. This suggested that the easiest implementation of OFDM is with the use of digital manoeuvre Processing (DSP), which can implement FFT algorithms. It is only recently that the advances in incorporated circuit technology have made the implementation of OFDM cost strong.The cartel on DSP prevented the wide spread use of OFDM during the early development of OFDM. It wasnt until the late 1980s that work began on the development of OFDM for commercial use, with the introduction of the digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) system.2.7.2 Advantages using OFDMAThere are some advantages using OFDMA.OFDM is a highly bandwidth efficient scheme bec ause different sub-carriers are orthogonal but they are overlapping.Flexible and can be made adaptational different modulation schemes for subcarriers, bit exciteing, adaptable bandwidth/data order possible.Has splendiferous ICI performance because of addition of cyclic prefix.In OFDM equalization is performed in frequency domain which becomes very easy as compared to the time domain equalization. precise good at mitigating the effects of delay spread.Due to the use of many sub-carriers, the symbol duration on the sub-carriers is plusd, relative to delay spread.ISI is avoided through the use of guard interval.Resistant to frequency selective fading as compared to single carrier system.Used for high data rate transmission.OFDMA provides flexibility of deployment crossways a variety of frequency bands with little remove for modification is of preponderating importance.A single frequency network can be used to provide comminuted coverage and good frequency re-use.OFDMA offers frequency vicissitude by spreading the carriers all over the used spectrum.2.7.3 Challenges using OFDMAThese are the ruggedies we have to face while using OFDMA 202122,The OFDM signal suffers from a very high peak to average power ratio (PAPR) therefore it requires transmitter RF power amplifiers to be sufficiently linear in the simulacrum of high input power.Sensitive to carrier frequency offset, needfully frequency offset correction in the receiver.Sensitive to oscillator phase noise, clean and stalls oscillator required.The use of guard interval to mitigate ISI affects the bandwidth efficiency.OFDM is sensitive to Doppler shift frequency errors offset the receiver and if not corrected the orthogonality between the carriers is degraded.If only a few carriers are assigned to each user the ohmic exemption to selective fading will be degraded or lost.It has a relatively high sensitivity to frequency offsets as this degrades the orthogonality between the carriers.It is sensit ive to phase noise on the oscillators as this degrades the orthogonaility between the carriers.2.7.4 equation with CDMA in terms of benefits2.7.4.2 CDMA AdvantagesCDMA has some advantages over OFDMA 22,Not as compound to implement as OFDM based systems.As CDMA has a wide bandwidth, it is ambitious to equalise the overall spectrum significant levels of processing would be necessitate for this as it consists of a continuous signal and not discrete carriers.Not as easy to aggregate spectrum as for OFDM.2.7.5 OFDMA in the Real WorldUMTS, the European standard for the 3G cellular mobile communications, and IEEE 802.16, a broadband wireless access standard for metropolitan area networks (MAN), are two live examples for industrial support of OFDMA. Table 1 shows the basic parameters of these two systems.Table 1. OFDMA system parameters in the UMTS and IEEE 802.16 standards2.8 Radio Resource ManagementIn second component of this chapter we will discuss radio resource counselling sche mes, why we need them and how they improve the efficiency of the network. Radio resource charge is the system level manoeuvre of co-channel interference and other radio transmission characteristics in wireless communication systems. Radio resource management involves algorithms and strategies for ascendenceling parameters such asTransmit powerSub carrier assignationData rateHandover criteriaModulation schemeError coding scheme, etc2.8.1 Study of Radio Resource ManagementEnd-to-end reconfigurability has a strong allude on all aspects of the system, ranging from the terminal, to the air interface, up to the network side. Future network architectures must be flexible enough to support scalability as well as reconfigurable network elements, in order to provide the best possible resource management solutions in hand with cost telling network deployment. The ultimate aim is to extend spectrum efficiency through the use of more flexible spectrum allocation and radio resource manageme nt schemes, although suitable payload balancing mechanisms are also desirable to maximize system capability, to optimize QoS provision, and to increase spectrum efficiency. Once in place, mobile users will benefit from this by being able to access required serve wells when and where needed, at an affordable cost. From an engineering point of view, the best possible solution can only be achieved when elements of the radio network are properly configured and suitable radio resource management approaches/algorithms are applied. In other words, the efficient management of the wholly reconfiguration decision process is necessary, in order to exploit the advantages provided by reconfigurability. For this purpose, forthcoming mobile radio networks must meet the challenge of providing higher timbre of service through supporting increased mobility and throughput of multimedia services, even considering scarceness of spectrum resources. Although the size of frequency spectrum physicall y limits the capacity of radio networks, effective solutions to increase spectrum efficiency can optimize usage of available capacity.Through inspecting the involve of relevant participants in a mobile communication system, i.e., the Terminal, User, Service and Network, effective solutions can be used to define the communication configuration between the Terminal and Network, dependent on the requirements of Services demanded by Users. In other words, it is necessary to identify proper communications mechanisms between communications apparatus, based on the characteristics of users and their services. This raises further questions about how to manage traffic in modify networks in an efficient way.2.8.2 Methods of RRM2.8.2.1 Network based functionsAdmission encounter (AC) institutionalize overtop (LC)Packet scheduler (PS)Resource Manager (RM)Admission controlIn the decision procedure AC will use threshold form network cookery and fromInterference measurements.The new connection should not fix the planned coverage and quality of existingConnections. (During the whole connection time.)AC estimates the UL and DL load increase which new connection would produce.AC uses load information from LC and PC. bill change depends on attributes of RAB traffic and quality parameters.If UL or DL limit threshold is exceeded the RAB is not admitted.AC derives the transmitted bit rate, processing gain, Radio link initial quality parameters, target BER, BLER, Eb/No, SIR target.AC manages the bearer mappingThe L1 parameters to be used during the call.AC initiates the forced call release, forced inter-frequency or intersystem handover.Load controlReason of load controlOptimize the capacity of a cell and prevent overloadThe interference main resource criteria.LC measures continuously UL and DL interference.RRM acts based on the measurements and parameters from formulationPreventive load controlIn normal conditions LC takes care that the network is not overloaded and remainsSt able.Overload condition .LC is responsible for cut back the load and bringing the network back into operating area.Fast LC actions in BTSLower SIR target for the uplink inner- wave PC.LC actions located in the RNC.Interact with PS and restrain back packet data traffic.Lower bit place of RT users.(speech service or CS data).WCDMA interfrequency or GSM intersystem handover.Drop single calls in a controlled manner.2.8.2.3 Connection based functionsHandover Control (HC) major power Control (PC) forefinger controlUplink open coil power control.Downlink open loop power control.Power in downlink common channels.Uplink inner (closed) loop power control.Downlink inner (closed) loop power control.Outer loop power control.Power control in compressed mode.HandoverIntersystem handover.Intrafrequency handover.Interfrequency handover.Intersystem handover.Hard handover (HHO).All the old radio links of an MS are released before the new radio links are established. round the bend handover (SHO)SM S is simultaneously controlled by two or more cells belonging to different BTS of the same RNC or to different RNC.MS is controlled by at to the lowest degree two cells under one BTS.Mobile evaluated handover (MEHO)The UE maiRadio Resource Management in OFDMA NetworksRadio Resource Management in OFDMA Networks1 IntroductionThe convenience and popularity of wireless technology has now extended into multimedia communications, where it poses a unique challenge for transmitting high rate voice, image, and data signals simultaneously, synchronously, and or so error-free. That challenge is currently being met through Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM), an interface protocol that divides incoming data streams into sub-streams with overlapping frequencies that can then be transmitted in parallel over orthogonal subcarriers 2,3. To allow multiple accesses in OFDM , Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) was introduced. Relaying techniques, along with OFDMA, ar e used to achieve high data rate and high spectral efficiency.1.1 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple AccessOFDMA, an interface protocol combining features of OFDM and frequency division multiple access (FDMA)., was developed to move OFDM technology from a fixed-access wireless system to a true cellular system with mobility with same underlying technology, but more flexibility was defined in the operation of the system 1,8. In OFDMA, subcarriers are grouped into larger units, referred to as sub-channels, and these sub-channels are further grouped into bursts which can be allocated to wireless users 4.1.2 Relay-Enhanced NetworksIn cellular systems, a way to achieve remarkable increase in data rate, but without claiming for more bandwidth, is to foreshorten cell sizes, however, with smaller cells more base stations (BSs) are needed to cover a same area due to which deployment and networking of new BSs compass significant costs 5. An alternative solution to this problem is to depl oy brisk relay stations (RSs), which can communication with each other and with BSs through wireless connections reducing systems cost. A relay station (RS), also called habitual criminal or multi-hop station, is a radio system that helps to improve coverage and capacity of a base station (BS) and the resulting networks employing relay stations are sometimes called cooperative networks 6.1.3 Technological RequirementThe continuously evolving wireless multimedia services push the telecommunication industries to set a very high data rate requirement for next generation mobile communication systems. As spectrum resource becomes very scarce and expensive, how to utilize this resource wisely to put through high quality user experiences is a very challenging inquiry topic. Orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA)-based RRM schemes together with relaying techniques allocate different portions of radio resources to different users in both the frequency and time domains and offers a promising technology for providing ubiquitous high-data-rate coverage with comparatively low cost than deploying multiple base stations 5.Although wireless services are the demand of approaching due to their mobility and low cost infrastructure but along with this they suffer serious channel impairments. In particular, the channel suffers from frequency selective fading and distance dependent fading (i.e., large-scale fading) 1, 8. While frequency selective fading results in inter-symbol-interference (ISI), large-scale fading attenuates the transmitted signal downstairs a level at which it can be correctly decoded. Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) relay-enhanced cellular network, the integration of multi-hop relaying with OFDMA infrastructure, has become one of the most promising solutions for next-generation wireless communications.1.3.1 Frequency Selective FadingIn wireless communications, the transmitted signal is typically reaching the receiver th rough multiple propagation paths (reflections from buildings, etc.), each having a different relative delay and amplitude. This is called multipath propagation and causes different parts of the transmitted signal spectrum to be attenuated differently, which is know as frequency-selective fading. In addition to this, due to the mobility of transmitter and/or receiver or some other time-varying characteristics of the transmission environment, the principal characteristics of the wireless channel change in time which results in time-varying fading of the received signal 9.1.3.2 Large Scale FadingLarge scale fading is explained by the gradual loss of received signal power (since it propagates in all directions) with transmitter-receiver (T-R) separation distance.These phenomenonss cause attenuation in the signal and decrease in its power. To overcome this we use diversity and multi-hop relaying.1.3.3 DiversityDiversity refers to a method for improving the reliability of a message signal by using two or morecommunication channelswith different characteristics. Diversity plays an important role in combatingfadingandco-channel interferenceand avoidingerror bursts. It is based on the fact that individual channels experience different levels of fading and interference. Multiple versions of the same signal may be transmitted and/or received and combined in the receiver 10.1.4 Proposed Simulation toughieWe developed a simulation model in which each user-pair is allocated dynamically a pair of relay and subcarrier in order to maximize its accomplishable sum-rate while satisfying the minimum rate requirement. The algorithm and the results of the simulation model are given in chapter 4.1.5 ObjectivesThe objective of our project is to have a detail overview of the literature regarding Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA), Radio Resource Management (RRM) and Relaying techniques. After literature review we developed a simulation framework in which we will tr y to use minimum resources to get maximum throughput by using dynamic resource allocation.1.6 ToolsFor the design and implementation of proposed Algorithm, we have used the following toolsMATLABSmart DrawCorel Draw1.7 OverviewChapter 2 contains the literature review. It explains the basic principles of OFDMA, Radio Resource Management (RRM) and the relaying techniques.Chapter 3 explains the implementation of OFDM generation and reception that how an OFDM signal is generated and transmitted through the channel and how it is recovered at the receiver.Chapter 4 could be considered as the main part of thesis. It focuses on the simulation framework and the code. We have followed the paper Subcarrier Allocation for multiuser two-way OFDMA Relay networks with Fairness Constraints. In this section we have essay to implement the Dynamic Resource Allocation algorithm in order to achieve the maximum sum rate. Results are also discussed at the end of the end of the chapter.2 Literature ReviewI ntroductionFirst section of this Chapter gives a brief overview about OFDMA.OFDMA basically is the combination of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) and Frequency Division Multiplexing Access (FDMA).OFDMA provides high data rates even through multipath fading channels. In order to understand OFDMA, we must have brief introduction to Modulation, Multiple Access, Propagation mechanisms, its effects and its impairments while using OFDMA.2.1 ModulationModulation is the method of mapping data with change in carrier phase, amplitude, frequency or the combination 11. There are two types of modulation techniques named as Single Carrier Modulation (SCM) Transmission Technique or Multicarrier Modulation (MCM) Transmission Technique. 12Single Carrier Modulation (SCM)In single carrier transmission modulation (SCM) transmission, information is modulated using adjustment of frequency, phase and amplitude of a single carrier 12.Multi Carrier Modulation (MCM)In multicarrier modulatio n transmission, input bit stream is split into several parallel bit streams then each bit stream simultaneously modulates with several sub-carriers (SCs) 12.2.2 MultiplexingMultiplexing is the method of sharing bandwidth and resources with other data channels. Multiplexing is sending multiple signals or streams of information on a carrier at the same time in the form of a single, complex signal and then recovering the separate signals at the receiving end 13.2.2.1 parallel TransmissionIn analog transmission, signals are multiplexed using frequency division multiplexing (FDM), in which the carrier bandwidth is divided into sub channels of different frequency widths,and each signal is carried at the same time in parallel.2.2.2 digital TransmissionIn digital transmission, signals are commonly multiplexed using time-division multiplexing (TDM), in which the multiple signals are carried over the same channel in alternate(a) time slots.2.2.3 Need for OFDMAGeneral wireless cellular syste ms are multi-users systems. We have limited radio resources as limited bandwidth and limited number of channels. The radio resources must be shared among multiple users. So OFDM is a go choice in this case. OFDM is the combination of modulation and multiplexing. It may be a modulation technique if we analyze the relation between input and output signals. It may be a multiplexing technique if we analyze the output signal which is the linear sum of modulated signal. In OFDM the signal is firstly split into sub channels, modulated and then re-multiplexed to create OFDM carrier. The spacing between carriers is such that they are orthogonal to one another. Therefore there is no need of guard band between carriers. In this way we are parsimony the bandwidth and utilizing our resources efficiently.2.3 Radio Propagation MechanismsThere are 3 propagation mechanisms Reflection, Diffraction and Scattering. These 3 phenomenon cause distortion in radio signal which give inauguration to propag ation losses and fading in signals 14.2.3.1 ReflectionReflection occurs when a propagating Electro-Magnetic (EM) wave impinges upon an object which has very large dimensions as compared to the wavelength of the propagating wave. Reflections occur from the surface of the earth and from buildings and walls.2.3.2 DiffractionWhen the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is hinder by a surface that has sharp irregularities (edges), diffraction occurs. The secondary waves resulting from the obstructing surface are present throughout the space and even behind the obstacle, giving ascent to a bending of waves around the obstacle, even when a line-of-sight path does not exist between transmitter and receiver. At high frequencies, diffraction, like reflection, depends on the geometry of the object, as well as the amplitude, phase and polarization of the incident wave at the point of diffraction.2.3.3 ScatteringWhen the medium through which the wave travels consists of objects with dimensions that are small compared to the wavelength, and where the number of obstacles per unit volume is large. Scattered waves are produced by rough surfaces, small objects or by other irregularities in the channel. In practice, foliage, street signs and lamp posts produce scattering in a mobile radio communications system.2.4 Effects of Radio Propagation MechanismsThe three basic propagation mechanisms namely reflection, diffraction and scattering as we have explained above affect on the signal as it passes through the channel. These three radio propagation phenomena can usually be distinguished as large-scale path loss, shadowing and multipath fading 1415.2.4.1 Path LossPath Lossis the attenuation occurring by an electromagnetic wave in transit from a transmitter to a receiver in a telecommunication system. In simple words, it governs the deterministic attenuation power depending only upon the distance between two communicating entities. It is considered as large scale fading because it does not change rapidly.2.4.2 ShadowingShadowingis the result of movement of transmitter, receiver or any channel component referred to as (obstacles). Shadowing is a statistical parameter. Shadowing follows a log-normal distribution about the values governed by path loss. Although shadowing depends heavily upon the channel conditions and stringency of obstacles in the channel, it is also normally considered a large scale fading component alongside path loss.2.4.3 Multipath FadingMultipath Fadingis the result of multiple propagation paths which are created by reflection, diffraction and scattering. When channel has multiple paths. Each of the paths created due to these mechanisms may have its characteristic power, delay and phase. So receiver will be receiving a large number of replicas of initially transmitted signal at each instant of time. The summation of these signals at receiver may cause constructive or destructive interferences depending upon the delays and phase s of multiple signals. Due to its fast characteristic nature, multipath fading is called small scale fading.2.5 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is an efficient multicarrier modulation that is robust to multi-path radio channel impairments 15. Now-a-days it is widely accepted that OFDM is the most promising scheme in approaching(a) high data-rate broadband wireless communication systems.OFDM is a special case of MCM transmission. In OFDM, high data rate input bit stream or data is first converted into several parallel bit stream, than each low rate bit stream is modulated with subcarrier. The several subcarriers are closely spaced. However being orthogonal they do not interfere with each other.2.5.1 OrthognalitySignals are orthogonal if they are mutually independent of each other. Orthogonality is a property that allows multiple information signals to be transmitted perfectly over a common channel and detected, with out interference. Loss of orthogonality results in blurring between these information signals and degradation in communications. many common multiplexing schemes are inherently orthogonal.The term OFDM has been reserved for a special form of FDM. The subcarriers in an OFDM signal are spaced as close as is theoretically possible while maintain orthogonality between them.In FDM there needs a guard band between channels to avoid interference between channels. The addition of guard band between channels greatly reduces the spectral efficiency. In OFDM, it was required to arrange sub carriers in such a way that the side band of each sub carrier overlap and signal is received without interference. The sub-carriers (SCs) must be orthogonal to each other, which eliminates the guard band and improves the spectral efficiency .2.5.2 Conditions of orthogonality2.5.2.1 Orthogonal VectorsVectors A and B are two different vectors, they are said to be orthogonal if their dot product is zero2.6 OFDM generation AND RECEPTIONOFDM signals are typically generated digitally due to the complexity of implementation in the analog domain. The transmission side is used to transmit digital data by mapping the subcarrier amplitude and phase. It then transforms this spectral type of the data into the time domain using an Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT) but due to much more computational efficiency in Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT), IFFT is used in all practical(a) systems.The receiver side performs the reverse operations of the transmission side, mixing the RF signal to base band for processing, and then a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is employed to analyze the signal in the frequency domain. The demodulation of the frequency domain signal is then performed in order to obtain the transmitted digital data.The IFFT and the FFT are complementary function and the most suitable term depends on whether the signal is being recovered or transmitted but the cases where the signal is independent of this distinction then these terms can be used interchangeably 15.2.6.1 OFDM Block Diagram2.6.2 Implementation of OFDM Block Diagram2.6.2.1 Serial to Parallel ConversionIn an OFDM system, each channel can be broken down into number of sub-carriers. The use of sub-carriers can help to increase the spectral efficiency but requires additional processing by the transmitter and receiver which is necessary to convert a serial bit stream into several parallel bit streams to be divided among the individual carriers. This makes the processing faster as well as is used for mapping symbols on sub-carriers.2.6.2.2 Modulation of DataOnce the bit stream has been divided among the individual sub-carriers by the use of serial to parallel converter, each sub-carrier is modulated using 16 QAM scheme as if it was an individual channel before all channels are combined back together and transmitted as a whole.2.6.2.3 Inverse Fourier TransformThe role of the IFFT is to modulate each sub -channel onto the grab carrier thus after the required spectrum is worked out, an inverse Fourier transform is used to find the corresponding time domain waveform.2.6.2.4 Parallel to Serial ConversionOnce the inverse Fourier transform has been done each symbol must be combined together and then transmitted as one signal. Thus, the parallel to serial conversion stage is the process of summing all sub-carriers and combining them into one signal2.6.2.5 ChannelThe OFDM signal is then transmitted over a channel with AWGN having SNR of 10 dB.2.6.2.6 ReceiverThe receiver basically does the reverse operations to the transmitter. The FFT of each symbol is taken to find the original transmitted spectrum. The phase angle of each transmission carrier is then evaluated and converted back to the data word by demodulating the received phase. The data words are then combined back to the same word size as the original data.2.7 OFDMA in a broader perspectiveOFDM is a modulation scheme that allows di gital data to be efficiently and reliably transmitted over a radio channel, even in multipath environments 17. OFDM transmits data by using a large number of narrow bandwidth carriers. These carriers are regularly spaced in frequency, forming a block of spectrum. The frequency spacing and time synchronization of the carriers is chosen in such a way that the carriers are orthogonal, meaning that they do not interfere with each other. This is despite the carriers overlapping each other in the frequency domain 18. The name OFDM is derived from the fact that the digital data is sent using many carriers, each of a different frequency (Frequency Division Multiplexing) and these carriers are orthogonal to each other 19.2.7.1 History of OFDMAThe origins of OFDM development started in the late 1950s with the introduction of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) for data communications. In 1966 Chang patented the structure of OFDM and published the judgment of using orthogonal overlapping mu lti-tone signals for data communications. In 1971 Weinstein introduced the idea of using a Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) for Implementation of the generation and reception of OFDM signals, eliminating the requirement for banks of analog subcarrier oscillators. This presented an opportunity for an easy implementation of OFDM, especially with the use of Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT), which are an efficient implementation of the DFT. This suggested that the easiest implementation of OFDM is with the use of Digital Signal Processing (DSP), which can implement FFT algorithms. It is only recently that the advances in integrate circuit technology have made the implementation of OFDM cost effective.The credence on DSP prevented the wide spread use of OFDM during the early development of OFDM. It wasnt until the late 1980s that work began on the development of OFDM for commercial use, with the introduction of the Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) system.2.7.2 Advantages using OFDMAThere are some advantages using OFDMA.OFDM is a highly bandwidth efficient scheme because different sub-carriers are orthogonal but they are overlapping.Flexible and can be made adjustive different modulation schemes for subcarriers, bit loading, adaptable bandwidth/data rates possible.Has excellent ICI performance because of addition of cyclic prefix.In OFDM equalization is performed in frequency domain which becomes very easy as compared to the time domain equalization. truly good at mitigating the effects of delay spread.Due to the use of many sub-carriers, the symbol duration on the sub-carriers is increased, relative to delay spread.ISI is avoided through the use of guard interval.Resistant to frequency selective fading as compared to single carrier system.Used for high data rate transmission.OFDMA provides flexibility of deployment across a variety of frequency bands with little need for modification is of overriding importance.A single frequency network can be used to provide exc ellent coverage and good frequency re-use.OFDMA offers frequency diversity by spreading the carriers all over the used spectrum.2.7.3 Challenges using OFDMAThese are the difficulties we have to face while using OFDMA 202122,The OFDM signal suffers from a very high peak to average power ratio (PAPR) therefore it requires transmitter RF power amplifiers to be sufficiently linear in the range of high input power.Sensitive to carrier frequency offset, needs frequency offset correction in the receiver.Sensitive to oscillator phase noise, clean and enduring oscillator required.The use of guard interval to mitigate ISI affects the bandwidth efficiency.OFDM is sensitive to Doppler shift frequency errors offset the receiver and if not corrected the orthogonality between the carriers is degraded.If only a few carriers are assigned to each user the resistance to selective fading will be degraded or lost.It has a relatively high sensitivity to frequency offsets as this degrades the orthogonal ity between the carriers.It is sensitive to phase noise on the oscillators as this degrades the orthogonaility between the carriers.2.7.4 equality with CDMA in terms of benefits2.7.4.2 CDMA AdvantagesCDMA has some advantages over OFDMA 22,Not as complicated to implement as OFDM based systems.As CDMA has a wide bandwidth, it is difficult to equalise the overall spectrum significant levels of processing would be needed for this as it consists of a continuous signal and not discrete carriers.Not as easy to aggregate spectrum as for OFDM.2.7.5 OFDMA in the Real WorldUMTS, the European standard for the 3G cellular mobile communications, and IEEE 802.16, a broadband wireless access standard for metropolitan area networks (MAN), are two live examples for industrial support of OFDMA. Table 1 shows the basic parameters of these two systems.Table 1. OFDMA system parameters in the UMTS and IEEE 802.16 standards2.8 Radio Resource ManagementIn second section of this chapter we will discuss rad io resource management schemes, why we need them and how they improve the efficiency of the network. Radio resource management is the system level control of co-channel interference and other radio transmission characteristics in wireless communication systems. Radio resource management involves algorithms and strategies for controlling parameters such asTransmit powerSub carrier allocationData ratesHandover criteriaModulation schemeError coding scheme, etc2.8.1 Study of Radio Resource ManagementEnd-to-end reconfigurability has a strong impact on all aspects of the system, ranging from the terminal, to the air interface, up to the network side. Future network architectures must be flexible enough to support scalability as well as reconfigurable network elements, in order to provide the best possible resource management solutions in hand with cost effective network deployment. The ultimate aim is to increase spectrum efficiency through the use of more flexible spectrum allocation and radio resource management schemes, although suitable load balancing mechanisms are also desirable to maximize system capacity, to optimize QoS provision, and to increase spectrum efficiency. Once in place, mobile users will benefit from this by being able to access required services when and where needed, at an affordable cost. From an engineering point of view, the best possible solution can only be achieved when elements of the radio network are properly configured and suitable radio resource management approaches/algorithms are applied. In other words, the efficient management of the whole reconfiguration decision process is necessary, in order to exploit the advantages provided by reconfigurability. For this purpose, future mobile radio networks must meet the challenge of providing higher quality of service through supporting increased mobility and throughput of multimedia services, even considering scarceness of spectrum resources. Although the size of frequency spectrum phys ically limits the capacity of radio networks, effective solutions to increase spectrum efficiency can optimize usage of available capacity.Through inspecting the needs of relevant participants in a mobile communication system, i.e., the Terminal, User, Service and Network, effective solutions can be used to define the communication configuration between the Terminal and Network, dependent on the requirements of Services demanded by Users. In other words, it is necessary to identify proper communications mechanisms between communications apparatus, based on the characteristics of users and their services. This raises further questions about how to manage traffic in disparate networks in an efficient way.2.8.2 Methods of RRM2.8.2.1 Network based functionsAdmission control (AC)Load control (LC)Packet scheduler (PS)Resource Manager (RM)Admission controlIn the decision procedure AC will use threshold form network planning and fromInterference measurements.The new connection should not i mpact the planned coverage and quality of existingConnections. (During the whole connection time.)AC estimates the UL and DL load increase which new connection would produce.AC uses load information from LC and PC.Load change depends on attributes of RAB traffic and quality parameters.If UL or DL limit threshold is exceeded the RAB is not admitted.AC derives the transmitted bit rate, processing gain, Radio link initial quality parameters, target BER, BLER, Eb/No, SIR target.AC manages the bearer mappingThe L1 parameters to be used during the call.AC initiates the forced call release, forced inter-frequency or intersystem handover.Load controlReason of load controlOptimize the capacity of a cell and prevent overloadThe interference main resource criteria.LC measures continuously UL and DL interference.RRM acts based on the measurements and parameters from planningPreventive load controlIn normal conditions LC takes care that the network is not overloaded and remainsStable.Overload co ndition .LC is responsible for reducing the load and bringing the network back into operating area.Fast LC actions in BTSLower SIR target for the uplink inner-loop PC.LC actions located in the RNC.Interact with PS and buy the farm back packet data traffic.Lower bit rates of RT users.(speech service or CS data).WCDMA interfrequency or GSM intersystem handover.Drop single calls in a controlled manner.2.8.2.3 Connection based functionsHandover Control (HC)Power Control (PC)Power controlUplink open loop power control.Downlink open loop power control.Power in downlink common channels.Uplink inner (closed) loop power control.Downlink inner (closed) loop power control.Outer loop power control.Power control in compressed mode.HandoverIntersystem handover.Intrafrequency handover.Interfrequency handover.Intersystem handover.Hard handover (HHO).All the old radio links of an MS are released before the new radio links are established. lenient handover (SHO)SMS is simultaneously controlled by tw o or more cells belonging to different BTS of the same RNC or to different RNC.MS is controlled by at least(prenominal) two cells under one BTS.Mobile evaluated handover (MEHO)The UE mai